Between the Birksian theory and the traditional approach in the Dissertation

Between the Birksian theory and the traditional approach in the English law of Unjust Enrichment - Dissertation Example It is necessary to create delineation between the possible remedies that the law offers in case of financial loss, or the enrichment of one-party beyond a reasonable measure of proportionality. The development of this principle throughout the centuries will be touched upon in this analysis, as well as the simplification of the legal landscape regarding unjust enrichment based on the principle of "absence of basis". Unjust enrichment is connected with the principle of restitution, which stands opposed to the principle of compensation. It is a matter of a remedy based upon the gain of one-party, or a remedy based upon loss to another party. RESTITUTION A court-ordered attempt to make restitution requires the offending party to surrender gains into the hands of the plaintiff/claimant. (The defendant must grant reparations to an aggrieved party in response to a loss which has occurred in a manner for which the defendant is found to be liable. The benefits or financial advantages accrued by the defendant are restored to the plaintiff based on an understanding of a legitimate claim to said benefits. In the case of contractual obligations the value of funds or properties included in the contract that will be included in the restitution judgment. Another situation in which restitution is appropriate would be the vindication of property rights which have been abrogated by some action – or failure to take action on part of the defendant. (Graham, 2006). Issues of restitution pertaining to unjust enrichment often hinge upon whether a contract exists in reality, or whether it is simply implied in assumpsit as an outgrowth of other legal processes. Situations or countries where implied contractual obligations are nonbinding challenge the premise of restitution or unjust enrichment. Here the principal issue becomes one of misrepresentation of the legal obligations and subsequent remedies mandated under principles of restitution. (Indian Contract Law, 1872) COMPENSATIO N Compensation represents payment for damages as deemed appropriate by the court. Damages can take the form of injuries or violations of duties based upon pre-existing legal obligations, or as a result of tort law. A principal difference between the gain in based restitution and loss-based compensation is that restitution would require reparation for gains that should otherwise have been shared by the defendant. Where compensation is required, and expectation of gain need not exist – all that is acquired is the ability to demonstrate that actions (or negligence) on part of the defendant was directly attributable to injury, loss, or harm suffered by the plaintiff/claimant. Compensation is also appropriate in cases of breach of contract. If the defendant enters into a binding agreement to utilize the products or services of another party, and that secondary party is required to expend funds or resources in response to work that does not occur as ordered, or a purchase that is n ot perceived as agreed, then damages are appropriate. The claimant could have undertaken agreement with other parties, and the expenditure of resources without agreed-upon compensation involves the loss of those resources without the promised revenue. Where compensation is appropriate, the defendant need not necessarily have profited themselves, as would be the

The Charismatic Leadership Style Essay Example for Free

The Charismatic Leadership Style Essay The Charismatic Leadership Style I have chosen to write my journal article on a leadership style known as a Ccharismatic Leader. Its difficult to identify the characteristics that make a leader charismatic, but they certainly include the ability to communicate on a very powerful emotional level, and probably include some personality traits. I do not believe that charismatic leadership is essential to be an effective leader but it can enhance the leadership journey. The Charismatic Leader gathers followers through based upon their personality and charm, rather than any form of external power or authority. Possessing these characteristics can be an extremely powerful way to gain and lead others. They can also make their followers (ordinary people) do some pretty extraordinary things. Charismatic leaders have the ability to sense the gap that exists between what an organization and culture of people and empower them to come together as one. By bridging this gap the leader can create a vision of a future state that everyone believes will be better than the current one. The charismatic leader often communicates their vision using metaphors and stories in ways that everyone can understand the vision. Their followers see the leader as one that possesses the ability to visualize the future with clarity. Their followers are also able to see how they fit into this future state and believe it will be better than today. Charismatic leaders do these things constantly in large and small ways. Charismatic Leaders are visionaries. They focus on transforming situations, not just maintaining. They will show great confidence in their followers. They are very persuasive and make very effective use of body language as well as verbal language. Many politicians use a charismatic style, as they need to gather a large number of followers. The person who I think is a great charismatic leader is Barack Obama. I have listened to a lot of his speeches and he has the power to motivate and empower people with his words, his testimony and his story of overcoming many trials and obstacles. Barack Obama is often compared to John F. Kennedy, who is arguably the most charismatic President of the United States. â€Å"Todays environment emphasizes organizational learning and follower empowerment conditions that promote mutual respect and dialogue. However, even in this environment leaders can, sometimes unwittingly, enact subtle abuses. Generally included in the typical definition of power are the notions of dependency and control: a leaders ability to determine followers behavior stems at least in part from the followers dependency on the leader. This, in turn, is based on leaders control over the various aspects of organizational life affecting followers or perceived as needed by followers, such as material resources and organizational advancement.

temptopia Theme of Utopianism in The Tempest Essay -- The Tempest Essa

Theme of Utopianism in The Tempest      Ã‚   One traditional theme of The Tempest is Utopianism. Whether it be of physical significance, as Walter Cohen suggests in his essay "Shakespeare and Calderon in an Age of Transition," or of literary significance, as Judith Boss suggests in her essay "The Golden Age, Cockaigne, and Utopia in the The Faerie Queene and The Tempest," it is an important piece of literature in contribution to Utopianism. Judith Boss does an excellent job in breaking down Utopianism within The Tempest into three different categories, the Golden Age, Cockaigne, and Utopia. All three are implemented, or can be derived from The Tempest. In Walter Cohen’s essay, he suggests that Shakespeare wrote The Tempest by no coincidence near the end of his career and life because it was an argument, or representation, of what England’s foreign policy was. It also predetermined in a way where England was headed politically. Judith Boss does an exceptional critique of The Tempest in identifying Utopianism. She presents three classic forms of Utopianism and illustrates how they are represented in the play. Gonzalo’s speech can be seen as a representation of Montaign’s essay "Of the Caniballes." Gonzalo’s human nature and person can be viewed as a "normal man" in Cockaigne theory. And, Prospero’s actions and status on the island can be considered as a sort of political, philosophical Utopia. The Golden Age The whole idea of a Golden Age being possible is something that traces back in literary history through many plays, essays and other treatises carrying this theme. It became rather accelerated by the Renaissance writers who chose to implement it into their writings. The possibility of a Golden Age is taken with th... ...for this. She has been raised on the somewhat "utopian" island most of her conscious life. Even though I think that Shakespeare was trying to disprove a Utopia he leaves Miranda to represents man’s last hope and possibility for a utopia. Works Cited and Consulted Boss, Judith E. "The Golden Age, Cockaigne, and Utopia in The Faerie Queene and The Temepest." Georgia Review 26 (1972) 145-55. Cohen, Walter. "Shakespeare and Calderon in an Age of Transition." Genre 15 (1983), 123-37. Hill, Christopher. The World Turned Upside Down: Radical Ideas During the English Revolution. London: Temple Smith, 1972. Maus, Katherine Eisaman. "Arcadia Lost: Politics and Revision in the Restoration Tempest." Renaissance Drama 13 (1982): 189-209. Wolf, A. A History of Science, Technology and Philosophy in the 16th and 17th Centuries. Vol. 2. New York: Harper, 1959.

Non-Violent Protest: Dr. Martin Luther King

Non-violent protest: Dr. Martin Luther King This morning, I woke up to turn on the 7 o clock news and listened to the reporter inform America on violence around the world. There were stories ranging from a shootout in Homewood to wars amongst territories. If violence continues to breakdown communities, there will come a time where there will be no communities left to destroy. My grandmother was telling me how today is not the same day as yesterday; when brothers and sisters helped each other progress through struggles. During the1900s, society was unjust because of color.Whites wanted to rule the nation, but this was not in the interest of black people. Blacks wanted an end to segregation, injustices, and white supremacy. There were many different leaders that used different methods to strive for the achievement of this goal and many failed. Dr. Martin Luther King made a great contribution to the conclusion of oppression for blacks. What did Martin Luther King do differently to help blacks and whites walk together after centuries of oppression? During the 1900s, blacks were faced with major obstacles that still affect people today.Blacks were not given opportunities to receive great education (Washington, M. (2006)). During that time, in Mississippi, three dollars was spent on an African American’s education and sixty dollars was spent on a white person’s education. Blacks were not allowed to vote and were not perceived as true citizens of the United States (Washington, M. (2006)). Whites sought to terrorize black people by preventing them from living life freely (Washington, M. (2006)). The world was separated and blacks were left with the trashy side of it (Washington, M. (2006)).African Americans wanted change, but they did not know how to make a huge societal change. During the time of oppression against black people, there were people, organizations, movements, and protest that aimed for black power and separation. The Black Panther Party was formed in 1966 and aimed to overthrow their white oppressors (Mintz, S. (2007)). Bookter T. Washington thought it would be a good idea to accommodate whites, integrate races economically and be separate socially. Marcus Garvey advocated a â€Å"back to Africa movement† because he saw a future with no love between blacks and whites.Black Muslims advocated racial separation and it was cultivated in their religion (Mintz, S. (2007)). Muhammad said â€Å"Your entire race will be destroyed and removed from this earth by Almighty God. And those black men who are still trying to integrate will inevitably be destroyed along with the whites (Mintz, S. (2007))† He showed much anger to white people and wanted total separation with black supremacy (Mintz, S. (2007)). Malcolm X was a leader that advocated violence if it was necessary to break down the walls of racial oppression. By any means necessary† is a famous quote stated by Malcolm X that shows his view on obtaining bl ack power (Mintz, S. (2007)). These leaders are known to be great but oppression continued to build; there was still no peace. Whites continued to oppress blacks and looked for ways to make their lives miserable. Dr. King believed society would be demolished if everything continued. He decided to take a different approach. â€Å"Darkness cannot drive out darkness: only light can do that. Hate cannot drive out hate: only love can do that† is an infamous quote stated by Dr.Martin Luther King Jr (King, M. (1998)). Dr. King lived his whole life during a time where blacks were severely mistreated and faced enormous injustices. He felt if blacks continued to fight back with violence, then there would be a world with no peace until it is destroyed. Dr. King had a dream that blacks would not be judged by the content of their skin but by the content of their character. (Dyson, M. E. (2008)) He dreamed of a world with equal opportunities and civil rights (Dyson, M. E. (2008)). He wante d this dream to become sight and many people influenced his approach.He advocated six principles to help society reach his vision. I would like to use this section of the paper to establish who and what inspired the practices and ideas of Dr. King. While pursuing a degree at the Crozer Theological Seminary, King listened to a lecture presented by Mahatma Gandhi (King, M. (1998)). Being inspired by his words, King read different books written by Ghandi (King, M. (1998)). He learned that Ghandi used non-violence against British rule in India (King, M. (1998)). King believed this was a method that could possibly settle the injustices for blacks in America.For more influence, King studied the theories of Henry David Thoreau with the intent to make a societal change (Dyson, M. E. (2008)). King was familiar with the leaders who used non-violence such as Frederick Douglass, Philip Randolph and Bayard Rustin, but King wanted everyone to get involved (Mintz, S. (2007)). King partnered up wit h Ralph Abernathy and Bayard Rustin and formed the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (Jerome, B. (2011)). King aimed for the SCLC to be attractive to the black church so that everyone would play a role (Jerome, B. (2011)). The 6 principles that King advocated 1 Do not humiliate or defeat (King Jr, M. (1957)). During this time of injustice, there was much hatred between black and white people. Blacks were always being defeated by whites, and they were tired of white supremacy. As a result, blacks aimed to defeat their oppressors to live life freely. Dr. King, the enlightened thinker, opposed the view. Dr. King said â€Å"the nonviolent resister should not seek to humiliate or defeat the opponent but to win his friendship and understanding (King Jr, M. (1957)). † Dr. King practiced what he preached. After Rosa Parks rejected to give up her seat to a white man on the bus, she was arrested.Many community leaders and Dr. King developed a bus boycott (King Jr, M. (1957)). Th is allowed King to implement what he learned from Ghandi. Dr. King was arrested and his house was fire bombed. After his house was bombed, he called out for his family (King Jr, M. (1957)). Instead of fighting back with violence he said â€Å"Now let's not become panicky, if you have weapons, take them home; if you do not have them, please do not seek to get them. We cannot solve this problem through retaliatory violence. We must meet violence with nonviolence. We must love our white brothers, no matter what they do to us.We must meet hate with love (Jerome, B. (2011)). † However, that did not stop him. For about 13 months, 17,000 black people in Montgomery refused to ride the bus (Jerome, B. (2011)). As a result, the company was losing too much money. On November 13th, 1956, the Montgomery Bus Boycott was known as a success, because the buses were desegregated. #2. Non-violent resistance is not for cowards (King Jr, M. (1957)). Some may raise opposition and believe that they have too much pride to be disrespected. Many thought it was a cowardly act, however, King believed otherwise.King said non-violent resistance is passive and always seeks opportunities to convince the opponent of advantages in forming a loving relationship (Dyson, M. E. (2001)). Although one is not violent, one continues to drive on coming together. A person, who drives on togetherness despite opposition, is brave and strong because it is not easy to go against the masses (Dyson, M. E. (2001)). This was shown during the Greensboro sit-in on February 1st, 1960. Four black students from North Carolina A;T State University decided to sit at the â€Å"whites only† counter at a local restaurant (Schlosser, J. (1998)).They did not get served and decided to stay seated in the section until they were served. They continued to return day after day and brought friends with them. After a week, hundreds were waiting to be served (Schlosser, J. (1998)). The restaurant eventually served th e students and the protest influenced many non-violent protests throughout different cities (Schlosser, J. (1998)). Instead of fighting, mirroring, and hating, the students looked to eat with other white people. The white people did not like it, but they had the chance to hear the black students. #3: Non-violent resisters attack forces of evil (King Jr, M. 1957)). African Americans believed that they were always under-attack and had to defend themselves. If people are striving for a world full of peace, evil has to be non-existent. During the 1900s, blacks and whites had evil intentions, but it was acceptable for whites to behave on their intentions (Washington, M. (2006)). King wanted the evil intentions to exit the minds of everyone and out of the world. King said â€Å"We are out to defeat injustice and not white persons who may be unjust (King Jr, M. (1957)). † Instead of hurting the person who has done evil, attack the evil forces.He wanted everyone to concentrate on att acking the evil forces of injustice, instead of trying to defeat the white man. Given you have killed a white man; the evil forces will continue to live. However, if you attack the evil forces, everyone can walk together. In 1961, the Freedom Riders abided by this principle. Black and white Freedom Riders left Washington D. C. in 1961 and rode buses, trains, and planes from city to city to protest against the forces of evil that segregated interstate transportation (Lisker, D. (2001)). They reached opposition, mobs and were arrested (Lisker, D. (2001)).After much perseverance, great support was gained from around the world. #4 Non-violent resisters accept suffering without retaliation (King Jr, M. (1957)). King believed one should accept violence but never commit it. This would enable white people to hear and listen to what they had to say (King Jr, M. (1957)). It may sound crazy because in today’s world, many problems are dealt with by using retaliation; just watch the news. However, earlier generations watched blacks accept the abuse, and later shake hands with white people. In 1963, the 16th Street Baptist Church was bombed and 4 black girls were killed (Simkin, J. (2011)).Instead of the parents and the community trying to kill Chambliss, the bomber, they accepted the suffering (Simkin, J. (2011)). They non-violently protested to let their voice be heard and Chambliss was sentenced to life in prison (Simkin, J. (2011). If they had retaliated, there would have been more than four dead girls. By not retaliating, Chambliss, who had used forces of evil, left society. As a result, there was one less force to fight against. #5 In Non-violent resistance, one loves the opponent with â€Å"agape (King Jr, M. (1957)). † Agape means unconditional love, and King expected everyone to love their opponent with it.Many people struggled with this principle because people could not find anything within themselves to love someone who terrorized them for so long. King wanted everyone to love everyone despite the opposition and the oppression (Dyson, M. E. (2008)). The avocation of this belief brought many colors together. King said â€Å"Along the way of life, someone must have sense enough and morality enough to cut off the chain of hate (Dyson, M. E. (2008)). † King wanted blacks to shine light on breaking this chain of hate and to bring love into the relationships. #6 In Non-violence resistances, the universe is just (King Jr, M. (1957)).Evidently, there are many people who share difficulty in loving your opponent. King believes the world was created to be just, but everyone is free to act with their own free will. People acted with their own free will and brought forces of evil into the world. The forces continued to grow since the start of time. King wanted everyone to understand that the world will evolve into a just universe. King encouraged others to believe that God is moving us toward universal love and wholeness continual (Dyson, M. E. (2008)). He used this principle to reinforce to African Americans that justice will be served in God’s time (Dyson, M. E. 2008)). He wanted African American activists to have and keep faith that justice will be served in the future. All of the work for justice will result in love, peace and justice everywhere is a belief that King stood by. Some may say non-violence was not going to fix the injustices in society. In the Student Non-violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), non-violence was their method to help the conditions of black people (Digital Library of Georgia. (2011, July 11)). In Los Angeles in 1965, an African- American was arrested with physical force because a white police officer thought he was intoxicated (Digital Library of Georgia. 2011, July 11)). People crowded around the scene in the neighborhood of Watts and started to violate the police officers. There was great tension between the people of Watts and the white authority for days. After, SNCC used violence as their method to help relieve blacks of oppression because non-violence was not putting an end to it. They believed that blacks needed to build power instead of trying to receive accommodations from the people with power, whites (Mintz, S. (2007)). Stokely Carmichael was head of the SNCC in May of 1966 and sought to use violence to beat oppression (Digital Library of Georgia. (2011, July 11)).The non-violence approach did not work for the SNCC; however, they did not continue to persevere through the tough time. Perseverance is defined as steady persistence in a course of action despite difficulties. Dr. King is an infamous historical icon that held this trait. People should not have expected time to change immediately after many years of oppression. When Dr. King persevered and gained strong support, changed happened, and he used the method of non-violence which brought everyone together. To conclude, Dr. King’s approach to help heal society was very different from the violent retaliation that people advocated.Dr. King overcame much to achieve his vision. He dealt with blacks not wanting to support his method, but to oppose it. He dealt with whites constantly trying to prevent him from making a change in society, but Dr. King continued to advocate and practice his principles. He was able to see that blacks had been trying to make a change by using violence for many years and it did not work. He understood that if blacks fought for black supremacy then it would just cause war and corruption. Whites feared being oppressed and became threatened when blacks retaliated; which drove for more oppression. Dr.King knew if a change was going to be made, then there would have to be love in the world. His approach was successful because he got the attention of white people, and they listened to what he had to say. When blacks retaliated, whites had no time to listen because they had to look for new ways to oppress black people more. I admire Dr. Kin g because he was able to bring blacks and whites together after the hatred between the two races for many years. Presently, we have blacks killing their brothers, sisters and communities without the development of a black society. This is an issue within the black community that needs to be fixed.What should we do? We should apply the 6 principles presented by Dr. King. We have to teach our brothers and sisters not to aim to defeat each other, but to love and lift up one another. We have to teach our brothers and sisters that life is not about being the â€Å"baddest† person on the block; it is ok to walk away out of love. We need to attack the evil forces that are causing the bad behaviors of our brothers and sisters. The people within the black communities need to be taught how to accept it when someone strikes you in the face, and to retaliate with love instead of a shot to the head.We have to show our brothers and sisters that we love them unconditionally; as a result, lo ve will drive out hate. It will be hard to teach people that the non-violent principles work, just as it was hard for Dr. King. Many people are ignorant of his contribution to society and are unaware of his method. I think the ideas, values, beliefs and history of the 1900s were not passed down from generation to generation effectively enough. When I was in elementary school, my grandmother told me â€Å"if someone hits you, do not hit them back. † She was able to see how effective non-violent protests were.My parents told me â€Å"if someone hits you, then you hit them back. † These are two different philosophies from two different generations on the same subject. If my grandmother’s generation would have effectively passed down their values and beliefs, then the world would be different. The world would not be the same because retaliation may be out of the social norm. People have to educate everyone on the impact of non-violence. After we have done all we can do, we have to call on God and let his will be done. Works Cited Carman, J. (2010). 6 facts about non-violent resistance.Retrieved from http://www. care2. com/greenliving/martin-luther-king-six-facts. html Dyson, M. E. (2008). April 4, 1968, martin luther king, jr. ‘s death and how it changed america. Basic Books. Dyson, M. E. (2001). I may not get there with you: The true martin luther king, jr. Free Press. Jerome, B. (2011). martin luther king: Biography. Retrieved from http://www. spartacus. schoolnet. co. uk/USAkingML. htm King, M. (1998). The autobiography of martin luther king, jr. New York: Warner Books. King Jr, M. (1957). Teaching american history. org. Retrieved from http://teachingamericanhistory. rg/library/index. asp? document=1131 Mintz S. (2007) America in ferment: The tumultuous 1960s â€Å"black nationalism and black power. Retrieved from http://www. digitalhistory. uh. edu/database/article_display. cfm? HHID=370 Digital Library of Georgia. (2011, July 11). Watts riots. Retrieved from http://crdl. usg. edu/events/watts_riots/? Welcome Nonviolence: The only road to freedom. (2006). Retrieved from http://teachingamericanhistory. org/library/index. asp? document=1426 Washington, M. (2006). American experience. Retrieved from http://www. pbs. rg/wgbh/amex/1900/filmmore/reference/interview/washing_obstaclesfaced. html West Virginia Department of Education. (2011, November 15). https://wvde. state. wv. us/. /02technicalwritingpowerpoint. ppt. Retrieved from http://citationmachine. net/index2. php Simkin, J. (2011). 16th street baptist church bombing. Retrieved from http://www. spartacus. schoolnet. co. uk/USAC16. htm Schlosser, J. (1998). Greensboro sit-ins launch of a civil rights movement. Retrieved from http://www. sitins. com/story. shtml Lisker, D. (2001). A brief history. Retrieved from http://www. freedomridersfoundation. org/id16. html

The Fashion Channel Pros & Cons

Overview At the completion of this assignment you will achieve the following module objective: 1 . Measure the profit impact of marketing segmentation strategies. Instructions You will be responsible for analyzing the corresponding case and posting your individual work in your group discussion forum by the specified due date (see course calendar for details). Post your answers to the case questions # 2 to 3 directly in the forum, it will save you and your teammates some time, and attach the corresponding excel spreadsheet with the financial analysis.A word of advice: Read the case questions before reading the case. Focus only on the information you need to answer the questions. Do your assignment in Word and always save it and then copy it over, you never know when you will be the victim of technology failure. It would also be helpful if you read the grading rubric before submitting your work. You will know exactly what is expected from you. The Fashion Cannel 1 . What are the pros a nd cons of the three segmentation scenarios?Read carefully the case and make a list of the pros and cons of each segmentation scenario. Use the following table to summarize your findings. Scenario 1: Broad-based Segmentation Scenario 2: Fashions focus I Scenario 3: Fashion's + I Planners/Shoppers I Targeting Cheapest because of easy implementation and I Compared to the 2007 numbers this segmentation I Compared to the 2007 numbers this I there is no need to develop new programming. I produces $100 million more in terms of net Segmentation yields almost $115 million I ISticks with old marketing approach which had I income. I more in terms of net income. I caused TFH to grow so quickly in the past I This segmentation improved TV ratings from 1. 0% | This scenario improves TV ratings from I I land become popular in its early years. Tit 1. 2% 11. 0% to 1. 2 % and average CPM from $2. 00 | I I Keeps executives calm â€Å"why fix something I The average CPM would increase from $2. 00 to T it $2. 50 I that's not broken† new segmentation TFH could I | $3. 50 I With this I Hits the target market of valuable 18-34 |It would help compete against Lifetime because Differentiate its programming from Females in all clusters. The ages of I current and future competition by existing loyal viewers | 18-34. 150% of fashion's are between Ill not drive any I producing programs specific to this I audience. I because not much will change. I I Delivers $40 million more in terms of net I I income compared to 2007 base number. I Cons I Luke-warm approach by attempting to satisfy I Results in 0. 2% decrease in TV ratings. I Although this segmentation producesI liverymen- TFH will not satisfy anyone. I This scenario requires $1 5 million incremental Desirable numbers in terms of TV ratings I I I Risk losing viewers to more targeted I programming expense to cover new programming. Land CPM, this scenario requires a $20 | I programs like CNN and Lifetime. This cluster is also the small est of the four I million incremental programming expense toll I CPM is still $0. 20 lower than the current luster's which could lead to a decrease in I account for re-positioned programming. I I CPM.I viewers from the other clusters. I TFH would only be targeting about 50% of I TFH would still struggle to compete with I Because this scenario targets the smallest I us households. I Lifetime and CNN without changing the luster, TFH awareness by consumers would not I This could lead to a decrease in their I programming offered by the channel. I change, and their TV ratings might decrease I loyal viewers and might negatively affect I I level more. I their TV ratings. 2. Estimate the impact of each segmentation strategy on the company's revenue.You will have to estimate the financial of the company using the excel the following scenarios: 2007 Base: No segmentation; drop in ad unit pricing (average CPM). File. Consider Scenario 1: Multi segments, targeting 3 groups (excluding Basics); i ncrease in ratings, decrease in ad unit pricing (average CPM). Scenario 2: One segment, Fashions: drop in ratings, increase in ad unit pricing (average CPM). Scenario 3: Two segments, Fashions and Shopper/Planner; increase in ratings and increase in ad unit pricing (average CPM). Individual Case 2 Questions

How to Plan a Traditional Chinese Wedding

How to Plan a Traditional Chinese Wedding While Chinese weddings have become infused with Western wedding traditions, most Chinese weddings maintain some traditional cultural elements. Do you want to know how to plan a traditional Chinese wedding? From the engagement to the ceremony, heres what you should know. 1. Plan the Perfect Engagement As in Western culture, before a wedding, there must first be an engagement. In the past, most Chinese families relied on arranged marriages, but today, the majority of couples find their own match and marry for love. However, some elements of a traditional Chinese  wedding engagement remain intact. For example, the grooms family will typically send a betrothal gift to the brides family, which typically includes food and cakes. These gifts help seal the engagement. In addition to betrothal gifts, both the bride and grooms family will consult a fortune teller whose role is to help the family determine if the couple is compatible for marriage. The fortune teller will use various things such as names, birth dates, and time of birth to analyze compatibility. If all goes well, the couple will set a date for their marriage. 2. Choose the Right Dress For many Chinese women, picking the perfect wedding gown actually means picking three dresses. The typical traditional dress is called a qipao, which has been worn in China since the 17th century. Most women will wear one red qipao, a white Western-style gown, and a third ball gown throughout the night. The dresses are changed throughout the reception after courses are served. Some brides will even opt for a fourth dress, which they wear as they are saying their goodbyes as guests depart the wedding. 3. Invite Guests Traditional  Chinese wedding invitations are typically red and placed within a red envelope. Unlike the red envelopes used to give gifts of money, wedding invitation envelopes are typically wider and longer. The text is usually written in gold, which is a symbol of wealth in Chinese culture. Like in Western culture, the invitation features important information about the celebration. However, invitations are sometimes only mailed or hand presented several weeks or days before the wedding, as opposed to many months. The double happiness character, shuÄ ngxÇ Ã‚  (é›™åâ€"Å") is often written somewhere on the invitation. 4. Choose Decor Decorations at a typical Chinese wedding are usually provided by the reception venue. The Chinese character for happiness is often hung upside down as a symbol for the arrival of happiness. In addition to Chinese symbols, decor may include lights, candles, and flowers similar to those youd find at a typical Western wedding. Venues will often have a stage where the bridge and groom stands before the reception begins and while toasts are being made. Guests are not invited to the exchanging of vows, so the reception is the first time they see the couple.

How Long Is the SAT With Extended Time

How Long Is the SAT With Extended Time SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Students with documented disabilities may be eligible to receive extended time on one or more sections of the SAT. The options for extended time vary by student and must be approved ahead of the testing date by College Board's Services for Students with Disabilities (SSD). If you're a student, parent, or educator interested in extra time accommodations on the SAT, read on to learn about the different options and how long each one makes the SAT. First, let's briefly review who qualifies for additional time. Who's Eligible for Extended Time on the SAT? In order to qualify for extended time on the SAT, students must have a documented disability that constitutes a "relevant functional limitation." In other words, their disability impacts their ability to take the SAT, and extended time may help them improve their performance. These disabilities include visual, physical, medical, and motor impairments and learning disorders. Generally, eligible students will have an established Individualized Education Plan (IEP) or 504 plan with their school. However, having a plan or accommodations for extra time at school doesn't necessarily guarantee them extra time on the SAT. A qualified school coordinator must make an official request to College Board and provide all the necessary documentation. Since approval takes about seven weeks, she should start this process early. When making the request, the coordinator will indicate whether the student needs extended time for reading, mathematical calculation, written expression, or listening/speaking (for SAT Subject Tests). If the coordinator specifies extended time on reading, then the student will typically get extended time on all SAT sections, as they all require reading of some form. Apart from differences in time per section, what other options does College Board offer for extended time on the SAT? What Are the Options for Extended Time on the SAT? There are three options for extended time on the SAT: time and a half, double time, and 150% additional time. The amount of time students get varies depending on whether they take the SAT without the optional essay or the SAT with the essay section.Below, you can see the amount of time students get with each extended time option. Time and a Half The most commonoption for extended timeon the SAT lengthens it by 50%. Time and a half makes the SAT without the optional essay a total of 4 hours and 30 minutesand the SAT with the essay a total of 5 hours and 45 minutes.Students with time and a half take the SAT at the usual time and place, on a Saturday morning at their testing center of choice. Double Time The second option is double time, or 100% additional time, for a total of 6 hourson the SAT without essay or 7 hours and 40 minutes for the SAT with essay. Students with double time typically take the SAT over the course of two days at their school. 150% Additional Time Finally, in rare cases students may be granted 150% additional time and get 7 hours and 30 minutes on the SAT without essay and 9 hours and 35 minutes on the SAT with essay. Like students with double time, students with 150% additional time typicallytake the SAT over the course of two days at their school, rather than take it at the official testing center. They would sit with a school coordinator, generally one on one, unless there were another student or two with similar accommodations. While the above mentioned times technically describe the length of the test, the actual experience is longer due to breaks and time for instructions. Considering these factors, how long will the SAT with accommodations actually take? Ready with your planner? How Long Is the SAT With Extended Time? The times above describe how much time a student has to complete the Reading, Writing, and Math sections, but they don't include breaks, instructions, or other logistics of the test-taking experience, like passing out and collecting the test booklets. Students with extended time must stay for the entire designated time, even if they finish early. They also can't flip between sections or self-pace, but instead must stay on each individual section until time has been called. Without accommodations, the SAT is 3 hours with the essayor 3 hours and 50 minutes with the essay. Without the essay, students get two breaks totaling about 10 minutes. With the essay, students get three breaks for a total break time of about 15 minutes. Extended time doesn't include extended or extra breaks unless a specific request has been made and approved. For most students with extended time, therefore, you can just add 10 or 15 minutes of break timeand 30 to 60 minutes for administrative tasks to get a sense of how long the SAT will be. In the charts below for the SAT without essay and SAT with essay, I added 30 minutes for check in, instruction, filling out personal information on the tests, and finishing up. In a testing room with a lot of students, it may take a bit longer. For students testing individually or in small groups, check in may take a little less time. Here are my estimates for each extended time option to answer the question, how long is the SAT with breaks? SAT Without Essay Extended time option Total testing time With breaks Total time No extended time 3 hours 3 hours, 10 minutes ~3 hours, 40 minutes 50% additional time 4 hours, 30 minutes 4 hours, 40 minutes ~5 hours, 10 minutes 100% additional time 6 hours 6 hours, 10 minutes ~6 hours, 40 minutes 150% additional time 7 hours, 30 minutes 7 hours, 40 minutes ~8 hours, 10 minutes SAT With Essay Extended time option Total testing time With breaks Total time No extended time 3 hours, 50min 4 hours, 5 minutes ~4 hours, 35 minutes 50% additional time 5 hours, 45 minutes 6 hours ~6 hours, 30 minutes 100% additional time 7 hours, 40 minutes 7 hours, 55 minutes ~8 hours, 25 minutes 150% additional time 9 hours, 35 minutes 9 hours, 50 minutes ~10 hours, 20 minutes Taking the SAT takes a lot of time, energy, and focus. Students definitely don't want to add to their stress by showing up late, and when finished they're probably eager to head home. So what's a safe time for pick up and drop off for students taking the SAT with extended time? Safe Times for Drop Off and Pick Up As mentioned above, students with 50% additional time will take the SAT on Saturday morning at their preferred testing center. They should plan to arrive by 7:45. The SAT is administered between 8:30 and 9:00. Students with time and a half will be finished and ready to be picked up around 1:40 PM or 3:00 PM, depending on whether or not they're taking the essay section. Students with more time will take the test over the course of two days at their school under the supervision of a designated administrator. Their timing will vary. Usually students who start at 8:30 AM test until around noonand then resume the next day. These accommodations are meant to improve the test-taking experience for students and meet their needs. Since the SAT is time intensive, students, parents, and coordinators should make sure to know the ins and outs of the process and options for extended time. Below are the key points to remember. Key Points It takes about seven weeks for College Board to approve SAT accommodations, so gather your documentation and make your requests early. The most common option for extended time is 50% additional time, though some students will get more or only qualify for extra time on certain sections. Students decide whether or not to take the essay section when they register. Students with time and a half will spend from around7:45 AM to 1:40 or 3:00PM at their testing center (depending on if they take the essay or not). Extended time does not automatically include extended or extra breaks, so you need to make these requests separately. Students must stay for their entire designated testing time, so even if they finish early, the above schedule will still apply. Extended time can be a huge help for students with functional limitations, like reading comprehension or attention issues. Make your requests specific and supported by in-depth documentation, and leave extra time in case you need to appeal College Board's decision. Since the SAT is such an important test, you want to make sure you or your student is getting the accommodations she needs to see her best results. What's Next? Apart from extended time, what other accommodations are available to students taking the SAT? Read our full guide on SAT accommodations and how to get them here. Now that you know how long the entire SAT will take, what about each individual section? Answer any questions you have about exactly how long the SAT is here. Want to score a super high SAT score?Get all the tips and expert advice you need inour guide to getting a perfect SAT score. Disappointed with your scores? Want to improve your SAT score by 160points?We've written a guide about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now: Have friends who also need help with test prep? Share this article! Tweet Rebecca Safier About the Author Rebecca graduated with her Master's in Adolescent Counseling from the Harvard Graduate School of Education. She has years of teaching and college counseling experience and is passionate about helping students achieve their goals and improve their well-being. She graduated magna cum laude from Tufts University and scored in the 99th percentile on the SAT. Get Free Guides to Boost Your SAT/ACT Get FREE EXCLUSIVE insider tips on how to ACE THE SAT/ACT. 100% Privacy. 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How to Self-Publish a Graphic Novel

How to Self-Publish a Graphic Novel How to Self-Publish a Graphic Novel Crowdfunding the graphic novel on KickstarterKickstarter is a fantastic platform but it's an incredible amount of work. Aside from the lengthy setup, I spent 50 days busting my backside to reach my funding limit, broadcasting tweets, securing guest blogs, sending emails and generally pestering people to help me raise the money. If I could convey any advice on crowdfunding it's not to underestimate the effort it takes to reach your goal.With the help of 166 backers, I was lucky enough to raise  £5,617 for The Written Graphic Novel. As you can imagine I was incredibly pleased, even though the real work was now to begin.The first step was to get the artwork done. This was down to Mike Shipley, my fantastic artist. With the help of a dozen mood-boards, we spent several months plotting out how the artwork could sit alongside the story. After storyboarding each page, all 130 of them, Mike got stuck in.A year and five months after we launched the project, we hit the preparation stage. Eve n though I'm an expert in self-publishing and tour the UK teaching fellow authors how to self-publish books, publishing a graphic novel was new territory for me. As I do all the typesetting for my print books, there was a steep learning curve, consisting of ink densities, DPIs, CMYK versus RGB, PDF compression, and all the other aspects that come with moving from black and white print-ready files to full-color printing. However, it was a rewarding process. It taught me a lot, and I was especially glad for the experience as I was able to pass the knowledge onto the authors that I help self-publish.Formatting and self-publishingNow publishing the print version, even though it took a bit of back and forth with  Ingram Spark, a very helpful and major print-on-demand company, was relatively straight forward. It took a few months to process but by December the paperback was out across the globe in a range of stores. It was now time to turn my attention to creating the eBook version â₠¬â€œ the more technical of the two.With eBook formatting, there are a few more aspects to consider compared to typesetting. There are two major eBook formats, multiple types of eReaders, screen sizes and even orientations to bear in mind. I always recommend working with a professional when it comes to the technical job of formatting. The reading experience is very important indeed, and you want to get it spot on for your esteemed readers. That's why I took my own advice and turned to Reedsy to find myself the perfect technical formatter for the job.You can find The Written Graphic Novel and the rest of Ben Galley’s fantasy books at www.bengalley.com, His is self-publishing advice service can be found at www.shelfhelp.info.  Ben can be found being loquacious and attempting to be witty on Twitter (@BenGalley) or Facebook (/BenGalleyAuthor).Have you ever thought about  adapting your novel into a graphic novel? If no, what's stopping you? Let us know your thoughts, or any que stions for Ben, in the comments below!

The Inside Truth of Avis Europe PLC(UK) planned failed(this may vary) Essay

The Inside Truth of Avis Europe PLC(UK) planned failed(this may vary) - Essay Example Avis Europe had planned to implement this same system for their enterprise but the implementation of the project was cancelled after a $54.5 million investment. The lack of planning and inability to indentify requirements led to the failure of the ERP system even before it was officially implemented. By remaining focused on the objectives and careful planning the failure at avis Europe could have been avoided. The information technology industry has seen rapid growth over a period of time. Organizations are continuously looking for excellent quality software to enhance their productivity and profits. Despite the millions of dollars invested in implementing various information systems, organizations still encounter serious problems and failures during as well as following the implementation. Management Information System (MIS) failures occur all around the world in all kinds of organizations ranging from retailers to government organizations. There is a list of such failures which occurred in history and cost organizations millions of dollars in losses. some of the most notable IT failures in history include Hudson Bay Co. (Canada) which faced inventory problems which led to losses of over $33.3 million; Hewlett-Packard Co. (UK) which suffered $160 million loss as a result of a faulty ERP system; McDonald’s Corp. spent $170 million on information system purchase but later cancelled the project, Hershey’s faced an ERP failure which cost the company heavily, and the list goes on. Another such company to face information technology implementation failure for the Enterprise Resource Planning system is Avis Europe. This project aims to analyses the need for the implementation of the Enterprise Resource Planning system at Avis Europe and to study the problems faced by the company in the implementation which eventually

The Lisbon Treaty and the Development of the European Union Essay

The Lisbon Treaty and the Development of the European Union - Essay Example As the discussion highlights the principal objective of the Lisbon Treaty is to make the EU a single legal entity. The other objectives of the Treaty are aimed at the protection of the environment and enhancing security to the energy sector. Under the principles laid down by the Lisbon Treaty, the Member States can leave the EU voluntarily. The Lisbon Treaty suggests an amendment procedure to the EU Treaties of the future; without having to convene a meeting of the Member States for that specific purpose. Moreover, it brings about new changes to the EU system. At the proposal stage itself, there was intense debate between the drafters of the Treaty. It makes the fundamental rights charter of the year 2000 legally binding. The Member States treated this charter as a political declaration in order to formulate the rights of EU citizens and to pronounce them with greater emphasis. The Lisbon Treaty renders this charter binding on all the Member States; and this charter consists of 54 ci vil, political, economic and social rights. All these rights are applicable to the citizens of Europe. In addition, residents in the EU are provided with the right to life, the right to marry, the right to strike and the right to conduct business within the EU.

HRM And SHRM Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

HRM And SHRM - Essay Example Virgin very early realized that simple management of employees is not good enough to achieve greater success in the global market. It took the idea that investment in human element with respect to all aspects of the organization is essential for the success of the company. It integrated management of human resources into organizational strategy and has reaped tangible benefits as a result of this. Virgin took the HRM approach of designing systems, policies, and procedures to manage employees and integrated it with SHRM approach wherein human resources were seen as the key asset, extensive interest was shown and investment was made in order to meet key objectives. The approach of the group towards SHRM can be best understood by their group motto: "Our people come first†. Virgin has adopted various initiatives to ensure that their employees are managed effectively. Safe working environments are created, training is undertaken to ensure that employees are updated with the skills n eeded to handle their work, employment contracts for all staffs, and many more HRM initiatives have employed. There are other HRM systems in place such as bonuses, stock options, profit sharing, etc. Along with this Virgin have come up with numerous SHRM strategies such as recruitment criteria were in the company looks for values and character among the prospective employees that can uphold the company's brand value. Only those are selected who possess values that fit with the company's brand culture (Verma, 2006).

CIPR Internal Communications Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

CIPR Internal Communications - Coursework Example ce, â€Å"forums, blogs, and social networks,† to make it easier for their employees as well as stakeholders, to not only collaborate but also to connect with one another (Stratmann, 2012, p.1). Social media has proven to be a very vital tool in enhancing the effectiveness of an organisation’s internal communication. With social media inn internal communication come a lot of benefits. For example, social media enable organisations to have â€Å"real-time, authentic† communication with their staff. They also encourage open communication amongst members of an organisation since any member who wishes to contribute to a discussion is always free and able to do so. As such, it enables a smooth flow of communication throughout an organisation. In addition, if one is a member of a multinational organisation, then they can easily communicate to people world-wide, and on a â€Å"more involved level† rather than just through email or through phone. This has been made even better due to the availability of pictures and profile as well as forum features on social sites like Facebook and MySpace (Stratmann, 2012, p.1). VetsNow is an example of an organisation that has successfully used social media in its internal communication. It is an organisation that provides â€Å"out-of-hours veterinary care† all over the UK. Their main aim of adopting social media in internal communication was to strongly engage their internal â€Å"stakeholders.† At VetsNow, employees work both alone and at odd hours. As such, social media would provide its workers the rare opportunity of interacting with one another in person even if at different stations of work. They also saw it as a way of encouraging the sharing of information among employees and stakeholders, and through this exchange of information, they would not only regulate but also improve â€Å"clinical standards and practices† throughout the industry better. This would in turn make them global experts in â€Å"Emergency and Critical Care†

Machiavelli on Powers of NSA and Defense Spending Research Paper

Machiavelli on Powers of NSA and Defense Spending - Research Paper Example The growing security concerns in the country are arguable and justifiably especially following the events of 9/11. The relativity of the organization’s spending is admissible by the dictates of such iconic think tanks as the Italian Niccolo di Bernardo dei Machiavelli as the discussion below portrays. Niccolo di Bernardo dei Machiavelli was an early Italian politician, philosopher, and diplomat. Machiavelli influenced modern day politics with most historians acknowledging his ideas as the basis for contemporary politics. Among his major contributions was the political ethics which is a concept that explains the conduct of politicians and the policies they enact. The philosopher developed a concept known as Machiavellianism which is a negative term referring to unscrupulous politicians. Such politicians foster their own ambitions while disregarding the desires of the electorate who Machiavelli explains wield the power owing to their fundamental role of electing the leaders. Dem ocracy is a form of governance through which the population elects representatives who rule on their behalf. In a democratic society, the electorate constitutes a fundamental piece of the society and plays an integral role in the governance of the society. The political ideology arises from the social contract theory which posits that since not everyone can rule, the society elects few people with desirable qualities to lead them for a particular period. Within the period, the leaders make decisions through policies. However, in doing so, the leaders must safeguard the desires of the people. This implies that the leaders must maintain an interactive relationship with the electorate in order to determine the wishes of the people. The policies the leaders formulate and enact must represent the desires of the people and uphold humanity. In his work, The Prince, Machiavelli investigates the creation of democratic institutions and the conduct of politicians at the time (Althusser & Mathe ron, 2000). As a philosopher, Machiavelli explains that elected leaders, unlike in dynasties, must possess desirable qualities and sustain their conduct. In doing so, political leaders must exhibit humility and understanding of the issues facing their electorate. By considering such, the policies the leaders formulate and enact will reflect the desires of the people (Cunningham, Rogers & United States, 2005). Constant consultation between the electorate and the leadership is essential in the representation process as the leaders must always enact policies that uphold the freedoms of the people. Among the issues that Machiavelli contends that is essential in the development of free and fair societies is security. The leaders must sustain the security of their societies. Machiavelli explains that the security of the society is priceless and important to the electorate. The contract between the society and the leaders as explained in the social contract theory centers on creation of sa fe and secure societies. A country must employ its every resources in ensuring that its boarders are safe and free from foreign interference. Machiavelli’s doctrines and philosophies can help explain some of if his possible thoughts on the structure of modern society and the functions and powers of some of the state agencies.

Why it is necessary for HR practitioners to monitor the external macro Essay

Why it is necessary for HR practitioners to monitor the external macro environment - Essay Example The business environment is made up of many such factors that can affect the business in the shot and long term both. Therefore it is important to know and study about these factors and evaluate the changes and their impact on the organization. The external environment is made up of the all the forces present outside the organization that affects or has the ability to affect business’s ability to achieve its objectives. The external business environment is broadly categorized as the micro and macro external environment, the paper focuses on the external macro environment therefore we will discuss about that in detail. External Macro Environment: The external macro environment is made up of factors which are beyond the control of the organization. These include the PESTEL (political, economic, social, environmental and legal) factors. These factors are interlinked and cannot be distinct from each other easily. The effects these factors have on the businesses vary business to bu siness and from time to time. The effect of changes in the macro environment over the business is indirect, that is it affects the business through some changes. However the change in business doesn’t affect the environment in return. ... However the changes in the environment that affects the business occur constantly and they are difficult to predict. (BATES. 2005; KROON. 1995) When we speak about environment and its relationship with human resource management it refers to the combination of factors that influence the working and execution of the HR department. Any function of the organization, as mentioned earlier, cannot work in isolation and are interdependent on a lot of factors internally within the organization and outside the organization too, therefore for smooth operations and decision making it is essential to take into account of these factors which can influence HR polices, procedures and practices. The best framework to study the external macro environment, its components and how they affect the functioning of HR department is by the PESTEL analysis. I will further discuss the possible factors that lie in the PESTEL analysis and influences the HR function. Economic Factors: Economic environment is compo sed of many economic factors like populations, fluctuation in economic and trade cycle, national income, labour market conditions, interest rates and globalization of economy. This is the most important of all the factors prevailing in the environment that affects an organization the most including the HRM function. This could be made evident by the scenario for e.g. when company’s performance in well due to the boom in the trade cycle, it will attract more business and due to increase in business it may need to hire more labour from the market and it might face difficulty in hiring the required labour from the market. To serve the purpose the organization may be willing to pay extra compensations

Machiavelli on Powers of NSA and Defense Spending Research Paper

Machiavelli on Powers of NSA and Defense Spending - Research Paper Example The growing security concerns in the country are arguable and justifiably especially following the events of 9/11. The relativity of the organization’s spending is admissible by the dictates of such iconic think tanks as the Italian Niccolo di Bernardo dei Machiavelli as the discussion below portrays. Niccolo di Bernardo dei Machiavelli was an early Italian politician, philosopher, and diplomat. Machiavelli influenced modern day politics with most historians acknowledging his ideas as the basis for contemporary politics. Among his major contributions was the political ethics which is a concept that explains the conduct of politicians and the policies they enact. The philosopher developed a concept known as Machiavellianism which is a negative term referring to unscrupulous politicians. Such politicians foster their own ambitions while disregarding the desires of the electorate who Machiavelli explains wield the power owing to their fundamental role of electing the leaders. Dem ocracy is a form of governance through which the population elects representatives who rule on their behalf. In a democratic society, the electorate constitutes a fundamental piece of the society and plays an integral role in the governance of the society. The political ideology arises from the social contract theory which posits that since not everyone can rule, the society elects few people with desirable qualities to lead them for a particular period. Within the period, the leaders make decisions through policies. However, in doing so, the leaders must safeguard the desires of the people. This implies that the leaders must maintain an interactive relationship with the electorate in order to determine the wishes of the people. The policies the leaders formulate and enact must represent the desires of the people and uphold humanity. In his work, The Prince, Machiavelli investigates the creation of democratic institutions and the conduct of politicians at the time (Althusser & Mathe ron, 2000). As a philosopher, Machiavelli explains that elected leaders, unlike in dynasties, must possess desirable qualities and sustain their conduct. In doing so, political leaders must exhibit humility and understanding of the issues facing their electorate. By considering such, the policies the leaders formulate and enact will reflect the desires of the people (Cunningham, Rogers & United States, 2005). Constant consultation between the electorate and the leadership is essential in the representation process as the leaders must always enact policies that uphold the freedoms of the people. Among the issues that Machiavelli contends that is essential in the development of free and fair societies is security. The leaders must sustain the security of their societies. Machiavelli explains that the security of the society is priceless and important to the electorate. The contract between the society and the leaders as explained in the social contract theory centers on creation of sa fe and secure societies. A country must employ its every resources in ensuring that its boarders are safe and free from foreign interference. Machiavelli’s doctrines and philosophies can help explain some of if his possible thoughts on the structure of modern society and the functions and powers of some of the state agencies.

Daily plate Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Daily plate - Essay Example My diet consists mostly of beef, iced tea and fast food. Sometimes I would have chicken and fruit but these days were not very common. I also tend to skip meals due to a busy schedule. As a result, these occurrences are empty in the excel file. I know I can improve on the kinds of food I eat in order to have a more nutritious diet. I can plan accordingly so that the amount of food I eat corresponds to the food pyramid. (Food Pyramid, n.d.) I should try and eat more vegetables, dairy products and fish. I can also avoid skipping meals because this only makes me hungrier. Consequently, I end up eating more than what I should. I know a little fat is good for my body. Nevertheless, with the data I have gathered I believe I have been eating more than the proper amount of fatty foods. From now on, I believe I should be more aware of what I eat and the nutrients it can give me. This way I can monitor the amount of carbohydrates, fat and protein I take in. Reference: Food Pyramid. (n.d.) Retr ieved on April 20, 2011 from http://www.charantia.com/30-day-challenge/learn-a-healthy-lifestyle/food-pyramid/

Alcohol as an acceptable adjunct for occasions in our society Essay Example for Free

Alcohol as an acceptable adjunct for occasions in our society Essay There are approximately 50% or 126 million of Americans whom are past month alcohol drinkers, or also known as current drinkers. Also, approximately 23% or 55 million of Americans binge drink, and 6.6% or 16 million Americans reported heavy drinking. The estimated spending for healthcare services to treat alcohol problems, and its medical consequences of alcohol is 18.8 billion dollars a year. Alcohol is also officially linked to at least over half of all highway fatalities. To date, alcohol has been tried by 41% of 8th graders, 63% of 10th graders, 75% of 12th graders, and 87% of college students. Also there was an estimated 82 billion dollars lost in potential productivity due to alcohol and other drug use. We all know that alcohol is offered almost everywhere we go. At parties, in bars, in clubs, in stores, and restaurants. People consume alcohol for every occasion they can think of, or just to make their problems go away and to make them feel better, even though it is just for a limited amount of time. We all know what alcohol does, and can do. Why do we always chose alcohol at a party, in a bar, at a restaurant, or in a store? People can have fun without it. Alcohol is used to socialize better, but why cant people socialize without it? Why is alcohol used as an acceptable, unnecessary addition to celebrations such as parties, weddings, birthdays, and anniversaries, and as a way of relaxing and relieving stress and anxiety? People know what alcohol is about but yet continue drinking massively into more disasters. Reference: Drugs and Society Tenth Edition Chapter 8 p.182-191, U.S. National Library of Medicine and the National Institutes of Health http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/alcoholconsumption.html#cat1 People use alcoholic beverages to enjoy while chatting with friends. Thinking about the effects of alcohol on the health of a person using it is never apparent. The holidays are the time when alcoholic beverages are mostly abused of which includes parties and small gatherings of friends and families. In this case, the people responsible in that activity such as hosts and party organizers must think of the safety of every drinking pattern. Any risky of harmful pattern must be regulated and prevented. I am not saying that it is acceptable to use alcohol during parties. What I am trying to say is that when drinking alcoholic beverages cannot be prevented during holidays, proper caution must be used in doing so to prevent untoward incidents.

Direct Advertising of Schedule 4 Medicines to Consumers

Direct Advertising of Schedule 4 Medicines to Consumers Abduwaysi Amie Should Schedule 4 medicines be directly advertised to consumers? This essay will examine a number of arguments for and against direct advertising of Schedule 4 medicines to consumers, but it will argue that schedule 4 medicines should not be advertised directly to consumers. In the last decades advertising has grown and pharmaceutical companies are advertising directly to consumers. These days, consumers are facing the most advance and domesticated advertised about medicine. The research suggests that direct advertising to consumers is both beneficial and disadvantageous to public health in general. The TGA is the only authority that regulates direct advertising to consumers, advertisements for all therapeutic goods must comply with therapeutic good regulation act 1989. There are limits on direct advertisement product containing schedule 3,4and 8 to be advertised to consumers in Australia. Some groups of people argue the rules are too relaxed and are inadequate to enforce the Low that protects consumers ,others supporting direct advertise to consu mers (Mangin 2006), this number is evenly distributed and balanced , both side have been supporting their arguments with evidence. Currently there are a number of methods of advertising medicines to consumers. First type provides information to the consumers to seek treatment from their doctor about a particular problem without naming the drug. The second method is those which advertise their medicine directly to consumers by naming the drug, what it’s used for, how it used, how many tablets you take per days and the price of the drug. The last one is the common type of advertising, product claims such as efficacy, safety and quality of the drug. The entire drugs are subject to different TGA regulatory restriction.(Shaw March 2008) The Therapeutic Good Administration (TGA) is the branch of the Australian Department of Health and Aging, responsible for regulating therapeutic goods, prescription medicines, medical devices and non-prescription medicines including over the counter medicines in order to protect public health and safety. The TGA put in place the systems of national scheduling or classifying medicines to control medicines and chemicals that pose risks to consumers. Medicine is classified according to the level of risk. The TGA classified medicines and poison in to schedule from 1-9.† Schedule 4 (prescription only) medicines and Schedule 8 (drugs of addiction) is regulated by the Poisons Act 1964 and the Poisons Regulations 1965 State legislation). Schedule 4 medicines are Prescription only Medicine are defined by the poison act as this medicines are needed to be evaluated for safety and efficacy and for safe and appropriate use due to the complex nature of the medicine potential toxicity, compar ed with relatively safe over counter drug which do not require a prescription.(Health 2008) Under section 23(2) (e) together with substance or preparations intended for therapeutic use. The safety, quality and efficacy require further evaluation; the prescribing of certain S4 medicines is restricted to medical specialists in some cases Prescription of certain medicines to patients, who are suffering from chronic disease like skin disease and cancer. There are some drugs prescribe by dermatologist, gynaecologist that are restricted to medical practitioners.(C. Lee Ventola 2011) New Zealand and the United States of America are the only countries allowed direct advertising Schedule 4 medicines. This is not allowed by law in the most countries around the world including Australia. Direct advertisements to consumers failed to provide necessary information about the drug, instead they appeal and tend to sell and promote their products. It also contains misleading, inaccurate information.(Barbara Mintzes 2006) Today medicines are available in markets in two main forms in Australia, those required prescriptions from general practitioners and those you can buy directly without prescription(over the counter drug). Pharmaceutical companies can directly advertise to health professionals but not to the general public at all, this will affects the relationship that existed between patient and general practitioner. The health practitioners have good relation with their patients; they have also a legal responsibility in both prescribing the medicine and also informing the potential risk. In 21st t the century people attitude is changing the use of health services by accessing many range of information’s from the media. Restricting direct advertises schedule 4 medicines to consumers are justified due to safety concern. (Mangin 2006) For instance, the most recent evidences direct advertising can cause harm risk to consumer come from Vioxx. There was no enough evidence to suggest that Vioxx is more effective to treat arthritis pain and inflammation it has only benefited reduced risk of gastrointestinal effect. However the trail shows disadvantage outweighs the benefit which increases in heart attack and stroke. Many discussions have raised about the safety effects of direct advertising schedule 4 medicine to the consumer. The US cardiologist argued that the FDA has failed to stop direct advertising; Vioxx to US public, they failed to protect the public health and safety while cardiac risk grew. During those periods Merck has spent more than 500m illion for direct advertising their wonder drug to the world in its five years in the market. Vioxx case was one of the examples about the effects of direct advertising prescription medicine to the public and its potential impacts on individual patients and public health at large, based on the available evidence. Advertising schedule 4 medicine should be banned; it may expose people with serious medical problems. (Barbara Mintzes 2006)It is possible to change the law to safeguard the public from direct advertisement prescriptions medicine. The changes in policy about direct advertise prescription medicine to consumers can assist the connection between public advertising and public health. The people who are supporting direct advertising schedule 4 medicines to consumer argue that freedom of speech, commercial freedom, the right to get important information to consumers, In order to enable them to make a decision. They think direct advertising prescription medicine is very important human right, to know more information about a potential treatment for the disease they suffered from. They believe also access to their health information can be available to them with the availability of the drug, and (Assistant Professor The impact of advertising prescription medicines directly to consumers in New Zealand: lessons for Australia)information what is best for them. Defenders of direct advertise prescription medicine to consumers focused their campaign on the particular class of medicines that treat illness that symptom are already known to consumers. The defendant argues allowing direct advertise to consumers enablement and autonomy. The argument highlights the types patient who will benefit from direct advertise including the following, people those are poor who are an ability to have access health information, those who have temporary conditions, would prefer direct access information and those who have experience managing chronic pain and recurring long term conditions. In general, consumers who are adult they have capacity, entitled and right to make a decision about the products and good and services. The pharmaceutical company believes direct advertising to consumer has played important role in informing and educating the consumer about the condition that are treated by brand name drugs. Advertising schedule 4 medicines to consumers is undesirable because direct advertising does not provide necessary information about adverse effects, alternative treatments and the cost of drugs. According ED Mierzwinski, consumer program director for U.S PIRG.Direct advertising causes â€Å"over prescription of drug for condition people weren’t aware of it, has resulted in massive profit for the industry by preying on vulnerableconsumers† in addition, to discouragement doctor and patient relationship. This advertisement can give misleading information about the brand drug, exaggerate the benefits and under reporting the side effect or risk. The consumers that are exposed to direct advertising constantly think drug is the only solution to a health problem, instead of taking up healthy living, good diet and exercise. The result clearly shows, advertising new drug before fully known serious adverse effects, and current post market surveillance sometimes fails to identify adverse events that of a particular drug, which is heavily endorsed early in the process of production, which can present public health. Vioxx was such drug that mostly advertised in the U.S from 1999-2004. 4On September 30, 2004, Merck voluntarily withdrew Vioxx from the market. Before it withdrew patients requesting for Vioxx by asking the drug relying on the company advertisement they believe the Vioxx is better than other drugs treat the same conditions, not knowing that this drug can cause stroke or other heart problems. benoxaprofen (Oraflex, Eli Lilly) for arthritis, troglitazone (Rezulin, Parke-Davis) for diabetes, cisapride (Propulsid, Janssen) for gastric reflux, ceriva statin (Baycol, Bayer) for high cholesterol, and tegaserod (Zelnorm, Novartis) are other drugs that were heavily advertised to consumers, which have linked to safety risk. .(C. Lee Ventola 2011) Advertising has been the major tools of marketing to consumers for pharmaceutical companies. The profit generated by increasing spending on direct advertisement to consumer by pharmaceutical companies is the main driver of increasing prescription drug and raised the consumer expectation of drug treatment that influence both patients and doctors. The claim direct advertising can provide necessary information that could help the patients about the drug. It has been a point of discussion among patients, pharmaceutical companies and medical professionals in relation to direct advertisement to consumer.one group argues the knowledge from advertising may assist the patients in making decisions with their doctors to have a choice of treatment they need. Others argue advertising new drug to the consumer led to aggressive marketing of Vioxx the drug, which has been found unsafe and risk to consumers, such a case has put big pressure on FDA not to speed up the release of a new drug without pro per clinical trials. In recent times, more people have been calling for cessation of direct advertisement to safeguard consumers from unnecessary effects of direct advertisement and to put limits into misleading and false information. To improve access option for drug treatment, we need comprehensive, unbiased and accurate information. References Assistant Professor, DoP, Ryerson University, Toronto, Canada The impact of advertising prescription medicines directly to consumers in New Zealand: lessons for Australia, To ban or not to ban: direct-to-consumer advertising and human rights ( accessed 08/10 20140 Analysis , Australasian Medical Journal, vol. 2010,3,12, 749-766 pp. 2010,3,12, 749-766 2006, What are the Public Health Implications? ( accessed 09/10 20140 Direct- to- ConsumeAdvertising of PrescriptionDrugs in Canada, Barbara Mintzes, P, Health council of Canada. C. Lee Ventola, M 2011, Direct-to-Consumer Pharmaceutical Advertising( accessed 10/10 20140 Therapeutic or Toxic?’ U.S national library of medicine, National Institute of Health, vol. 36, no. 10 pp. 669-74, 81-84. Health, PSBDo 2008, Requirements for the prescribing , of Schedule 4 and Schedule 8( accessed 15/10 20140 Medicines in Western Australia WA Australia. Show, A March 2008, Direct-to- Consumer S Advertising (DTC) of Pharmaceuticals, Discovery Guides, 14/10/2014. ( accessed 10/10 20140

Long-term Cause Of The Russian :: essays research papers

In 1812 Czar Alexander the First had sworn an oath that Russia would never make peace as long as an enemy stood on Russian soil. Little did he know that not much more than a century later the enemy was those who were native to the Russian soil-the people. The Russian Revolution was an event that shaped the rest of the 20th century worldwide. The causes of the revolution go back many years before the actual revolution had even showed signs of breaking out. The causes included a weak government, indecisive leaders and, a very backwards way of life for the people.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the mid to late 19th century Russian leaders came to understand that Russia was backwards in it’s ways and that it must strive to modernize itself before the country was left in shambles. Russians and their land could be described in one word, poor. The agrarian societies were weak because the land was only hospitable to trees and ice. The peasants were serfs, attached to the land and their master s. In 1853 war suddenly broke out in the Crimean Peninsula over Christian shrines in the Ottoman Empire. After their defeat in the Crimean War, Russia’s war leaders realized even more that they were behind the whole world in modernizing. In response Alexander II then took the reigns of the empire radically improving the country. Trans-continental railroads were built and then in 1861 the serfs were emancipated. The government then strengthened Russia’s industry by promoting industrialization with the construction of factories. But then as quickly as Alexander II’s reform reign started, it ended. In 1881 a group of terrorists assassinated Alexander causing a cessation of the reforms. Suddenly economic modernization resurfaced again in the 1890’s under the Finance Minister named Sergei Witte. Witte believed that even though Russia was a backwards country, modernization could still occur. Under his leadership Witte helped the 35,000 mile railway system come to a completion. Yet the Russian leaders were so impressed that this great change that could improve Russia in the next 20 years they were so blind to the poverty and overpopulation that continued making Russia digress further and further.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  After a loss to the Japanese in the Russian-Japanese war, morale of the common folk was at an all time low. Illegal labor parties were forming and groups of dedicated individuals were begging for revolution. Groups such as the Nihilists, and the Anarchists started to form with the intent to start a revolution.

Information Security Essay

Information Security is a fundamental function of any organization expecting to be competitive in the global market. As more and more developing countries make the leap into capitalism, competiveness will only become more essential. With Asian nations like China, Korea and India stepping up to make their presence noticed taking more of the market share than ever before other organizations must remain competitive which means keeping their piece of the pie safe and secure. Organizations’ proprietary information if left unsecure could mean loss of their competitive edge. In the IndustryWeek. com article by, â€Å"Manufacturers Must Think Virtually to Ensure Data is Protected† Chris Benco contends; â€Å"Data is what all manufacturers rely upon, and with the ever-increasing influx of it, companies need to ensure that it is protected in the event of a natural disaster, human error or other problems. With this heavy reliance on data to maintain day-to-day operations, manufacturers cannot afford to overlook data protection as it is the key in maintaining production, optimizing productivity and guaranteeing profit. Information security though takes on another aspect when you consider an often over looked key element of corporate information. We think of information security in terms of protecting what is on paper and in data bases, but knowledge is much harder to nail down. Knowledge, information that is stored in the minds of the organization’s personnel is just as important as any other data or product information and should be gathered and stored just the same. As we could see in the reading material for this case assignment there are many methods for obtaining, sharing, and storing knowledge information. Some such methods were discussed by Ann Field in her article â€Å"Locking Up What Your Employees Know†. The step according to Ms. Fields are to first Create a knowledge profile, then foster mentoring relationships, encourage communities of practice, ensure that passing knowledge on is rewarded, Protect people’s privacy, and decide whether you’re interested in recorded knowledge as well.

Ancient Roman Government Notes Essay

The â€Å"common-people† assembly which helped give the citizens more political power Empire- A dominating nation with extensive territories and a powerful ruler Laws of the 12 Tables- Guidelines for citizen’s behavior; a list of Roman customs about property and punishment Mercenary- A soldier who is hired for service in a foreign country Patrician- Member of Rome’s richest and most important families who served on the Senate for life Plebeian- The common person or lower-class citizen Roman Senate- One of the two houses of the early Roman republic Republic- A country run by the elected representatives of its people Tribune- A leader within the Concillum Plebus In 500 B. C the Roman government was forming into a republic; in which the people have the freedom to vote for their leaders. There were two parts, or two houses, to the Roman Republic: the Citizen Assembly and the Senate. The elected officials headed the two councils and they served one-year terms. The republic was established in 509B.C and lasted 500 years. Differences between the Greek and Roman governments: In Greece all men were allowed to vote In Rome only men with money/property could vote The Senate was the most powerful part of the government; all senators were patricians. To obtain political rights, the common people (Plebeians) formed their own assembly, the Concillum Plebus and named their leaders tribunes. Establishing peace and order gave Rome stability: Rome’s first code of law was esta blished in 450B. C. On ten tablets, ten legal experts wrote down a list of Roman customs about property and punishment. However, due to plebeian pressure, two more tablets were added to satisfy them. The final code was called the Laws of the Twelve Tables. By the end of the third century Roman law covered issues dealing with foreigners and eventually covered magisterial law to strengthen and correct existing law. The Roman Empire took its first steps of dominance in 27B. C when the law’s development was taken over by the emperors, who added and revised freely. As the law got more complex, the government had to literally train jurists who could understand and interpret the laws. The stability of the law, the military, and financial standing of Rom kept it powerful. Rome successfully battled the Carthaginians, the Celtics(British), the Etruscans, and the Samnites. The Roman Empire was established around 27B. C. The empire spanned three continents. The empire was divided into states that were ruled by governors who collected taxes and sent money back to Rome.

Miscommunication: Phonology and Message

Sometimes it is not easy to transmit the intended meaning to a person during a communication process. Miscommunication is a phenomenon that people experience almost every day. It is even used for marketing or present in comedy shows. Miscommunication can arise through various incidences, for example in an intercultural communication, where people have different conventions, or when a word is ambiguous and the context unclear. Sometimes people also do not listen because they think the aspect is not relevant to them.One of the most frequent types of miscommunication are those based on slips of the tongue or slips of the ear. When people do not understand words, sentences or whole passages, the brain tries to fill the gap with known structures. Consequently, misunderstandings arise. In the following we want to concentrate on miscommunication that emerges through the transmission of the message in the auditory channel. There are various aspects that can lead to miscommunication through m istakes in the transmission of a message.These aspects, like the difference of hearing and listening, the exchange of letters or problems with the intonation etc. , are going to be dealt with in this paper. First of all we are going to present how a message is transmitted in communication and which phonological aspects play a role. Then miscommunication is going to be treated. We want to show how miscommunication can arise and afterwards analyse some misunderstandings and show how they could have come up. 2. Phonetics and phonology – the transmission of a message Communication always takes place between two or more people who are trying to get a message across.During this communication process, different aspects are important. As we talk about oral communication, which is about the transmission of sounds, phonetics and phonology play a role. They are a main aspect in the transmission of a message. Phonology means †die Entstehung, Ubertragung und Wahrnehmung, also die ma terielle Seite der Sprachlauteâ€Å" (Grasegger 2004: 7) whereas phonetics â€Å"untersucht die Funktion und die Eigenschaft von Sprachlauten als Elemente eines Sprachsystems, also die funktionelle Seite† (Grasegger 2004: 7).In the following we want to concentrate on the transmission of the sounds or the message. We want to have a look at the phonological aspects and prosodic aspects that play a role in the transmission process. But first of all, we are going to present Shannon and Weavers communication model. 2. 1. A communication model The process of communication can be presented as a model. One, the prototypical model, was developed by Shannon and Weaver in 1949. They reduce communication simply to the process of transmitting information (Chandler o.A. : 1). This model consists of five elements, an information source producing a message, a transmitter encoding the message into signals, a channel, a receiver decoding the message and a destination where the message arrives (Chandler o. A. : 2). Thus, a sender and a receiver always exist in a communication process. The sender is the information source who intends to transmit the message by his mouth (transmitter) through a channel. Here the message is transmitted through sound waves and maybe also body language.The ear receives the sound waves (receiver) and the listener decodes the message by interpreting verbal and non-verbal information and constructing a reality of what the meaning could be (www. worldtrans. org : 1). As sender and receiver do not share the same feelings, experiences, perceptions and ideas, the message can be interpreted differently by the receiver (ebd. ). Consequently, miscommunication can arise. Regarding the Shannon and Weaver model, some possibilities where miscommunication might emerge are in the channel, where noise is a dysfunctional factor (Chandler o. A. 2), on the listener’s side or during the process of encoding a message on the speaker’s side. However, t here are other aspects that have to be considered in communication. We also need to know how the speaker succeeds in producing a sound and how the listener reconstructs the message. At this point phones and suprasegmental features play a role. When the speaker wants to encode a message, he takes a phoneme as a basis and produces a phone that is transmitted through the channel. According to Grasegger 2004 the speaker disposes of a creative function, a sending and listening function in his brain.The sending function in the brain thinks of a message that reaches the speech-organs through nerves. There the sound is produced by tongue, breath, palate etc. (Grasegger 2004: 17-31). The sound passes the channel through sound waves and reaches the ear of the listener. The task of the listener is now to reconstruct the message, which means recognizing the individual words, extracting their syntactic relationships, determining the semantic structure of the utterance and its relation to the dis course context as well as recognizing emotions (Cuttler/Dahan/Donselaar 1997: 142).However, few cues are available to signal where one word ends and the next one begins. To understand the message, the listener has to find the individual word boundaries (Cuttler/Dahan/Donselaar 1997: 143). The brain decodes and reconstructs the message. The sounds, the â€Å"Signifikat† (Grasegger 2004: 11), stand for a special concept, the significant (Grasegger 2004: 11). In the following we are going to concentrate on this phonological and prosodic part the of communication process. 2. 2. Phonological elements of communicationAs already mentioned, phonological elements are important in the transmission of a message since phonemes are a unit of linguistic and perceptual processing (Clark/Yallop 1996: 318). During a communication process, the speaker produces sounds. These sounds are not transmitted individually but in bigger units. The smallest and primary unit of production and perception i s the syllable. It can be described as â€Å"symbiosis of consonant and vowel which acts as the effective vehicle for the transmission of linguistic information† (Clark/Yallop 1996: 318).Phonemes never have a meaning themselves. Their primary function is their distinctive function, the differentiation of meanings of speech units like words. If a sound has a distinctive function can be proved by replacing it by another sound. That means that a sound has a distinctive function when you take the example ‘Kanne’ and replace the [k] by a [t] so that the meaning changes (Grasegger 2004: 81). The articulation is not important when it does not have a distinctive function. Such words that differ only in one phoneme are called minimal pairs.By changing this phoneme, the word gets a different meaning (Grasegger 2004: 83). Thus, miscommunication can easily arise at this point since if the listener does not hear a part of a word or sentence, his brain replaces this gap (Clark /Yallop 1996: 318). Another aspect that is important during the transmission of sounds is that two words with two different meanings can sound similar and have to be understood in the context (Bu? mann 2002: 284). Thus, the role of sound in communication is the transmission of a meaning. However, a single sound does not convey a meaning, but a combination of sounds.The sounds (signifikat) stand for a meaning or concept (significant) that the listener has to decode. But if some sounds are replaced during processing in the brain and these sounds form a minimal pair the meaning can be changed. Later on we want to deal with some examples how miscommunication can arise because some sounds are replaces or their position in a word is changed. 2. 3. Prosodic elements of communication As we have seen, not only phones, the smallest segments of sounds, are important for the transmission or reconstruction of a message, but also uprasegmental features, phonetic expressions that include more than one segment. These are pitch, volume and duration which are linked to bigger units like syllables, words, phrases and sentences (Grasegger 2004: 63). However, prosody is normally used as a synonym for suprasegmental features such as pitch, tempo, loudness and pause (Cuttler/Dahan/Donselaar 1997: 143), although Grasegger defines prosody as the linguistic function of suprasegmental features which is to differentiate meaning on the level of words, phrases or sentences, or to structure an utterance rhythmically (Grasegger 2004: 63).So it is rhythm and intonation what helps differentiating meaning (Clark/Yallop 1996: 322). According to Cuttler/Dahan/Donselaar 1997, â€Å"the prosodic structure of an utterance exercises effects on the timing, amplitude and frequency spectrum of the utterance and these are dimensions of sound itself; any utterance, indeed any part of an utterance corresponding to any linguistic component to a phonetic segment even must have a certain duration, a certain amplitude and a certain fundamental frequency† (Cutler/Dahan/Donselaar 1997: 142).Consequently, if a speaker intends to emphasize a segment, frequency, pitch, intensity and duration, or one of these parameters, have to differ from the accentuation of other segments so that the listener is able to understand the difference in meaning or rhythm, since languages like English are â€Å"perceived in the durational interplay of prominent (or ‘stressed’) syllables and weaker or less prominent ones† (Clark/Yallop 1996: 323). However, few cues are available to signal where one word ends and the next begins. Elements that structure sentences etc. hythmically and determine their meaning are for example quality and accentuation. The speaker could change the meaning of an element by changing the duration, called quantity. That means, that for instance long vocals convey a different meaning than short vocals (Staat; Stadt) (Grasegger 2004: 72). The accentuation helps def ining word boundaries. An accent is the stress or emphasize of a syllable, a word or a sentence to emphasize it (Grasegger 2004: 73). Stressed syllables normally have a higher frequency, a higher volume and a longer duration than non-stressed syllables (ebd. . Its function is to structure an utterance so that the listener has the possibility to differentiate meaning by distinguishing different positions of stress like ancora and ankora in the Italian language (vgl. Grasegger 2004: 74). A â€Å"Satzakzent† (Grasegger 2004: 75) emphasizes words in a sentence and thus has a contrasting function. In the sentence ‘Peter searches a book’ , for example, the speaker can emphasize different units such as the book, Peter, or searches to make clear who he is talking about, what Peter does or what he is searching for.This kind of stress in a sentence is related to intonation. Intonation is another prosodic element that can be defined as â€Å"Verlauf der Sprechmelodie inner halb einer lautsprachlichen Au? erung† (Grasegger 2004: 76). It is the „Form der Tonhohenbewegungen im Verhaltnis zur mittleren Sprechstimmlage eines Sprechersâ€Å" (ebd. ). During a unit of intonation, the pitch rises or falls. The boundaries of a unit are defined by different phonetic elements like the distension of a syllable at the end of a unit or a linguistic pause, an interruption that has a structuring function (Grasegger 2004: 76).Thus, the characteristic of intonation is structuring an utterance as well as its distinctive function since the difference in pitch conveys meaning. A rising intonation at the end of a sentence normally is a question whereas falling intonation a statement. A demand or an order is expressed by â€Å"steil abfallender Intonation† (Grasegger 2004: 77). So the content and meaning of a sentence depends on the position of the accent and the rise or fall of pitch. Moreover, syntax and prosody are closely related so that the supraseg mental features may be influenced by the position in the syntactic structure.So we have, for instance, longer pauses before major syntactic boundaries (Cutler/Dahan/Donselaar 1997: 162). Furthermore, intonation (pitch, volume etc. ) show the emotional condition of the speaker and thus have an expressive function. A question, for example, can also indicate doubts or surprise of a speaker. (Grasegger 2004: 77). So prosodic elements that are important for the differentiation of meaning or structure the sentence through a certain rhythm so that they influence the accentuation of a message and the understanding of the listener are pitch, volume, duration and pauses.They help identifying words (Cutler/Dahan/Donselaar 1997: 148). Prosodic problems can lead to serious reductions of the understanding, what is going to be treated later on. 3. Miscommunication – Problems in the auditory channel After looking at the communication process and the transmission of a message through the audi tory channel, we now want to have a look at the emergence of miscommunication. In the following we are going to treat some aspects that can influence the transmission of sounds in a negative way so that the message is not transmitted correctly.Miscommunication can be caused either by the speaker or by the listener. That means by slips of the tongue or slips of the ear, because the receiver did not listen or on account of channel problems. However, we first want to deal with the difference of hearing and listening. 3. 1. Hearing and Listening One aspect through which miscommunication can arise is the difference between listening and hearing. People hear or perceive sounds the sender is trying to transmit. However, we have to listen and reflect to understand the message.Hearing can be defined as attending to the sounds which come to the receiver at certain frequencies and intensities. Thus, the receiver cannot influence hearing but avoid listening since this is a higher cognitive proc ess under the receiver’s control (Truax 2000: 20). There are three levels of listening attention. One of them is ‘listening in search’ which is listening at its most active. It involves a conscious search of the environment for cues. Detail is of the greatest importance for this kind of listening.The listener needs the ability to focus on one sound to the exclusion. That means that in a noisy environment, the listener has to focus on the sound the speaker is producing and not on the background noises. The second level is ‘listening in readiness’. This depends on associations being built up over time so that the sounds are familiar to the listener. Consequently, they can be identified even by background processing in the brain. So, for example a mother does not wake up when trains are passing by but when she hears her baby crying.The last form of listening attention is ‘background listening’. That means that people are aware of sounds tha t are not important for getting the message so that they do not listen. One reason for this is that they are usual occurrences and therefore expected and predictable so that people do not listen to them actively (Truax 2000: 19-22). The more of these sounds are perceived, the more miscommunication is possible since an increase in the noise level means more psychological tress, greater fatigue and consequently an increase in performance errors on account of the extra load of information processing when the brain has to shut out noise (Truax 2000: 19). Thus, miscommunication can arise involuntarily when people do not distinguish between hearing and listening or lack the skill of listening in readiness, for example. If somebody lacks that skill, he cannot distinguish between important or less important sounds so that an overload of sounds is possible. So people maybe do not hear a letter, a word or a sentence. Slips of the ear can also happen when you lack concentration.However, it is also possible to tune somebody out because you do not like the person or since you are bored or tired (Myres/Myres 1992: 139). Another problem that can arise in communication is that immediately after people have listened to a person talking, they tend to remember only about half of what they heard, no matter how hard they thought they were listening (Myres/Myres 1992: 138). Furthermore, the association one has to a sound can differ. That means that the listener does not associate the same meaning to a sound as the speaker does.So a reason for the loss of information or the understanding of wrong information are for instance highly redundant and basically uninteresting sounds that are perceived and do not encourage sensitive listening since they seem irrelevant for the listener. This can described as a listener- based and interactional- related problem. Consequently, problems can arise when the listener concentrates on background noises, when he thinks sounds are redundant or when h e lacks concentration or listening skills. There are also problems on the phonological and prosodic level that lead to miscommunication with which we want to deal later.The problems or types of miscommunication mentioned above are listener based, the last one is based on an interactional and a listener problem. However, miscommunication can also emerge through problems in the channel, during the interaction or on the sender’s side at which we want to have a look now. 3. 2. Channel- based and interactional- related miscommunication The main channel- based problem that influences the communication process negatively is noise. If there is too much noise in the background, the listener often perceives only bits of what the sender is talking about.Consequently, the brain tries to restore the missing segments by top-down contextual prediction (Clark/Yallop 1996: 318). What kind of misunderstanding arises, that means if it is based on prosodic or phonological aspects, depends on the missing segments. Another problem that may arise, is the overlap of turns meaning that for example two people are talking at the same time caused by problems in turn taking. Thus, the speaker A cannot concentrate on the sounds the other speaker (speaker B) is producing and does not understand passages of his speech. This can be categorized as channel and interactional-related miscommunication.To avoid misunderstandings or miscommunication it is necessary that sender and receiver establish a common ground. The speaker wants to know if he has succeeded in transmitting the message and waits for evidence that the listener has to give by asking a question or using continuing contributions like ‘yes’, ‘uhuh’ or ‘I see’. If miscommunication arises at this point, it can be categorized as an interactional problem. 3. 3. Sender and receiver related miscommunication Miscommunication is always a problem that arises either on the speaker’s side or o n the listener’s side.If there are channel problems, the misunderstanding comes up at the listener’s side. However, the sender’s pronunciation can also be a reason for miscommunication, for example when he stutters, does not pronounce the word correctly or clearly and does not stress correctly etc. Regarding these kind of problems, we distinguish between two categories of problems, prosodic and phonological ones. 3. 3. 1 Prosodic problems Prosodic problems are â€Å"Abweichungen in der Realisierung segmentubergreifender bzw. suprasegmentaler Eigenschaften lautsprachlicher Au? erungenâ€Å" (Grasegger 2004: 78).That includes problems or dysfunctions of pitch, volume and intonation that influence the intonation of a sentence and consequently its meaning. Prosodic problems influence the perception negatively and lead to incomprehensibility. Problems that can lead to misunderstandings are stuttering and variations in pitch and accentuation (Grasegger 2004: 78-79). Miscommunication can arise when people do not detect the right word boundary. For example, when a word is spread over a strong and a following weak syllable, listeners tend to divide the former syllable at the onset of the second strong syllable.Englishmen often tend to insert boundaries before strong syllables or leave boundaries between weak syllables out (Cutler/Dahan/Donselaar 1997:146). The reason why such miscommunication emerges is that strong syllables often signal the onset of lexical words (ebd. ). But the â€Å"strong weak distinction is primarily based on a segmental property, vowel quality, rather than on a stress distinction (Cutler/Dahan/Donselaar 1997: 148). However, not every language makes the same distinctions between strong and weak syllables (ebd. ). Whereas the rhythm of English sentences in stress-timed, French sentences are syllable-timed.As the segmentation procedures are part of the â€Å"processing repertoire† (Cutler/Dahan/Donselaar 1997: 148) of the listener, an Englishman and a Frenchman talking can produce miscommunication by applying their strategies to detect word boundaries (vgl. Cutler/Dahan/Donselaar 1997: 148). Furthermore, miscommunication can arise when a listener does not perceive the stress of some words, it is possible that he does not interpret the meaning correctly, for example in the vocal quality distinction (Cutler/Dahan/Donselaar 1997: 155).If the receiver does not get the sentence accents or the intonation, he probably does not know if it was a question or an order or, taking the sentence ’Er ist nicht einmal gekommen’ (vgl Grasegger 2004: 78), if he did not come or if he came several times. A misunderstanding can also come up when the speaker does not stress correctly. Usually, the listener who does not get the right words does not ask but adds the rest of the sentence so that a misunderstanding can arise. 3. 3. 2 Phonological problems Phonological problems are phonetic deviations on the word level.That does not include the pronunciations, the phonetics, but the wrong choice and order of elements a word, for example. We distinguish between paradigmatic problems and syntagmatic problems. Paradigmatic problems include the choice of the wrong elements, syntagmatic ones the wrong sequence or order of elements. The latter could be that people understand ‘papel’ instead of ‘apple’. An example for a paradigmatic problem understanding the word ‘Jacoc’ instead of ‘Jacob’ (Grasegger 2004: 123). Additionally, there are four different types of phonological problems: elision, addition, metathesis, substitution.Elision means that the speaker leaves out segments of a word or a whole syllable. In general one omits syllables that are not stressed. An example for an elision is saying and/or understanding nana instead of banana. Normally consonants are left out, in general the last consonant of a word like street which becomes stree. Addition means that the speaker or listener adds a consonant or a vocal so that apple becomes papple, zebra zebera or Tablett Tablette (Fromkin 1980: 35-36). It is also possible that you have an elision and an addition in a word or that you double a syllable.A metathesis is a problem in sequencing so that the speaker exchanges syllables or puts them the other way round. So Blatt is Balt or ‘fork’ ‘frok’. The last type of phonological problems, the substitution, means that the speaker has the same number of syllables but replaces one syllable by a different one. It is often replaced by another syllable that sounds similar like ‘Jacoc’ and ‘Jacob’. It is also possible to leave something out and replace a syllable or a letter (Grasegger 2004: 123-127; Fromkin 1980: 47).The first segments in a word and the first syllables are more likely to be affected by speech errors since they are more focused on during speech production (Fromkin 1 980: 48). According to Clark/ Yallop 1996, errors on the level of a syllable are detected far more readily than segment errors (Clark/Yallop 1996: 319). When the listener does not perceive one syllable, the brain tries to replace the missing syllable by a segment that could fit (vgl. Clark/Yallop 1996: 318). However, these processing in the brain might fail, especially when the words sound similar.Another aspect that can lead to miscommunication are these homophones. They are a type of lexical ambiguity, â€Å"homonyme Ausdrucke verfugen uber identische Aussprache bei unterschiedlicher Orthographie und Bedeutung† (Bu? mann 2002: 284) like ‚their’ and ‚they’re’. Consequently, misunderstandings can easily come up when for example the context is unclear and the word the speaker used sound similar but has a different meaning. This kind of miscommunication can also be categorized as message-related miscommunication.These problems can be listener-ba sed so that not the speaker changes elements of a word but the listener understands the wrong elements, for example because there were also channel problems or he did not listen or sender-based because of slips of the tongue, for example. 4. Analysis of miscommunication In the following chapter we are going to analyse some misunderstandings according to the features we have listed above. For the collection of data I used the diary method and searched in the internet. One example is taken from the internet, another one is a situation I experienced during the last weeks.The last example was originally broadcast on television some years ago that I remembered and wrote down. By analysing the examples of miscommunication, we want to come up with some possibilities how the misunderstanding could have emerged. 4. 1. A phonological problem The first misunderstanding is a situation I experienced some weeks ago. It took place on the dance floor during a training unit so that there was much ba ckground noise (people talking and music). The sender arrives and tells that he never wants to do it again with Korten, which is the last name of an absent person.M: Das mache ich nie wieder mit dem Korten! A: Was machst du nicht mehr mit dem Korken? This misunderstanding can be categorized as a phonetical miscommunication. The words Korten and Korken, that means [t] and [k], are a minimal pair since they have a distinctive function and change the meaning of the word. The misunderstanding is based on a paradigmatic problem, the choice of the wrong element, sound, in the word. The listener substituted the letter [t] by the letter[k]. One possibility how the misunderstanding could have arisen is in the channel.On account of music and loud voices in the background, the receiver had to listen in search but could not understand the whole sentence because of the extra load of processing in the brain or a lack of concentration. Probably she only got the first passage of the word and the la st syllable was added through brain processing as Korten and Korken only differ in one sound. Furthermore, the context was missing. M arrived and started the sentence with the word â€Å"das† which normally refers to something that had been said before. In this example a reference was missing because this word was used at the beginning of the communication.Additionally, the person â€Å"Korten† M was talking about was absent so that the listener did not expect M to talk about him in this context. M also used an article to refer to a person what you normally do not do in the German language unless you are speaking a dialect. So we can categorize this miscommunication mainly as acoustic misunderstanding which is based on substitution of a consonant and probably came up on account of a channel problem. 4. 2. Hearing and Listening This example was taken from the internet. It is a telephone call an old woman made to the police because she wanted to know if there was a thund erstorm in Neuss. 1)P (police): Hallo? (2)W(woman): hallo? (3)P: Hallo, hier ist die Polizei (4)W: Hallo, ich kann gar nichts verstehen! (5)P: Ne? Dann mussen Sie mal richtig zuhoren! (6)W: Ich wollte fragen, aah, wo die Nacht das Gewitter war. (7)P: Das†¦war uber Bochum. (8)W: Was?! (9)P: Uber Bochum? (10)W: Saarbrucken? (11)P: Auch (speaks up) (12)W: Wo denn? (13)P: Wo solls denn hin? (14)W: Was? (15)P: Wo das Gewitter denn hin soll? (16)W: Wo das gewesen ist? (17)P: In Deutschland (18)W: Ich hab’ Sie jetzt aber nich verstanden, wirklich nich, sind Sie mir nich bose! (19)P: Ne, bin ich nicht (20)W: Wo war das denn? 21)P: Uberall! (22)W: Uberall? (23)P: Ja, †¦ und das war nass. (24)W: bass (25)P: Nass! (26)W: †¦. Ist denn viel passiert? (27)P: Nein. (28)W: Viel passiert? (29)P: Nein! (30)W: Nein? (31)P: Nein. (32)W: Nein,†¦ Ja, entschuldigen Sie bitte, ich bin 99 Jahre alt und ich hab’ eine Tochter in Dusseldorf, in Neuss wohnen und ich hab’ noch nix gehort. (33)P: Da war nichts. (34)W: Was? (35)P: In Neuss war nichts! (36)W: Da was es? (37)P: Nein! (38)W: Nein? (39)P: Nein, in Neuss kein Gewitter. (40)W: Gewitter? (41)P: Nein! (42)W: War da das Gewitter? (43)P: Nein! (44)W: Nein? Ich hab’ kein Wort verstanden!Ich habe extra an die Polizei gewandt, dass ich Antwort krieg! (45)P (schreit): Ja, da war kein Gewitter! (46)W: Was? Bitter? (47)P: Da war kein Gewitter (48)W: Gewitter? Wo? (49)P (lacht) (50)W: Hier? (51)P: Nein! W legt auf. (source: www. radiopannen. de) In general, this miscommunication seems to be listener and channel- based. However, there are several factors that lead to this miscommunication. Concerning the channel, the woman probably does not hear very well because she is already old. We can suppose this because she always asks ‘was? ’ and says ‘ Ich hab’ kein Wort verstanden’.She was also nervous, because she had not heard of her daughter, what could influence the listening process. In addition to this fact, the telephone connection was bad and crackling in the wire could be heard. Perhaps the woman also lacked the skill or concentration for listening in search. In line 47 and 48 the woman did not listen to the beginning of the sentence and just paid attention when the man was talking about the thunderstorm where she was interested in. Obviously, she applied the wrong strategy, listening in readiness so that she heard what he was saying but only recognized the word ‘Gewitter’.The same can also be supposed for line 35 and 36. Moreover, we also have some misunderstandings that are based on prosodic and phonological problems as in line 39 and 40. Here we have a prosodic problem. The woman did not get that the police officer stressed the word ‘kein’, so that she thought there was a thunderstorm. In line 24 the woman understands ‘bass’ instead of ‘nass’. This is a paradigmatic problem that is ba sed on the substitution of [n] by [b] because they are minimal pairs and the words sound similar.In line 45 and 46 she understands ‘bitter’ instead of Gewitter. Here she is not able to define the right boundary because the stress of ‘bitter’ and ‘Gewitter’ is on the last syllable. Furthermore, we have an elision of the letters [g] and [e] and a substitution. [w] is replaced by [b]. Concerning the misunderstanding in line 9 and 10 where the woman understands Saarbrucken instead of Bochum, we have to guess that this arose because she could not understand the word on account of channel problems and ‘Bochum’ was replaced by another town in brain processing.So we can conclude that this miscommunication is based on various kinds of misunderstandings that are probably mainly influenced by channel problems such as a bad connection and an old person who is hard of hearing and maybe also lacks listening skills. 4. 3. Prosody and homophones T he following example for miscommunication was broadcast on television in 1959. A reporter called Heinz Maegerlein talking about sports pronounced the sentence: Maegerlein: Tausende standen an den Hangen und Pisten which was interpreted by the spectators as: Tausende standen an den Hangen und pissten. vgl. http://de. wikipedia. org/wiki/Heinz_Maegerlein) This misunderstanding can be interpreted as a message-related, listener or speaker-based miscommunication. It is a prosodic and phonological problem. As the words ‘Pisten’ and ‘pissten’ are homophones, the spectators added an ‘s’ to the word so that it also becomes a paradigmatic problem. On account of the words being homophones, the misunderstanding is message- related. That is why the speaker has to put the emphasize on the right syllables and the pauses in the right position. Therefore, we also have a prosodic problem here.Either the speaker must have put a wrong stress on the words or the sp ectators did not get the right intonation. To get the message across correctly, the speaker is not allowed to make a pause after ‘Hangen’ (Tausende standen an den Hangen [†¦] und Pisten) since it would emphasize ‘und Pisten’. Thus, as the words are homophones and therefore intonation very important, it seems that the problem is primarily a prosodic one, since the speaker has to try to get the right meaning across. 5. Conclusion Thus, we can conclude that most of the miscommunication happens on account of problems in the auditory channel.According to Fromkin 1980 about 60% of all misunderstandings are based on slips of the ear and 60% result in nonwords (Fromkin 1980: 6). These misunderstandings can come up on the listener’s side as slip of the ear because he does not listen, he lacks listening skills, does not concentrate, or on account of a mistake in brain processing. As the listener did not get an aspect of the communication, the brain search es words that sound similar. Miscommunication can also arise on account of channel problems like noise, interactional problems or message- related problems like homophones.Furthermore, the communication can be influenced negatively through slips of the tongue produced by the speaker. Consequently, the listener replaces the target segment by other segments of the same level of description so that other words with different meanings or nonwords come up. Parts of words, sentences or syllables can also be left out or the place can be changed. Additionally, problems in prosody can influence the meaning of the sentence as wrong intonation makes the definition of word boundaries more difficult to the listener. .Bibliography Bu? mann, Hadumod (2002): Lexikon der Sprachwissenschaft. Stuttgart: Kroner Verlag. Chandler, Daniel (o. A. ): The Transmission Model of Communication. http://www. aber. ac. uk/media/Documents/short/trans. html. Abgefragt am 25. 10. 2006. 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